The late 1920s into the 1930s were a period where Japan focused heavily on imperialism, especially with the invasion of Manchuria. Throughout the period, they faced increasing obstacles from the United States and the West.
“...Japan, a "have-not" nation, was denied its legitimate interest in nearby Asia and its need to find a way to extricate herself from economic recession. Japan became restless and politically fragile. Sympathy for other "have-not" nations, e.g., Italy and especially Germany, increased."*
Prior to the Pacific War and prior to the Twentieth Century for that matter, Japan emulated the West with many of the same motivations for power politics.* Over the early Twentieth Century, leading into the 1930s, Japan began to realize that their efforts at Asian Imperialism were not going to be accepted in the eyes of the Western Powers, and they quickly had to shift their focus to asserting power, not international law in order to carry them further.* In schools, students at the compulsory level were being taught that Japan had this sense of responsibility to preserve peace in East Asia, mainly China. This was another way of saying that Japan was out to take over complete control over China as a starting point to their greater goals of Asian domination.
Army Minister Bulletin posted after the assassination coup at the Prime Minister's home. Significance: strengthened the military's power in political affairs, even though the young officers received death sentences.*
It is important to go back to the resolution of World War I, in order to see where Japan’s struggles to control China began and how the United States played a major role in that. The United States was aware of Japan’s growing influence in Asia and this was a major factor in their decision to reward Japan with little benefits for their support as an ally in World War I. When the United States declared an Open Door Policy in China, Japan took that as a form of betrayal and viewed Americans as hypocritical, especially since they didn’t press on France and Britain to abandon their colonies in Africa and Asia.* Another incident came at the Naval Conference of 1930, where Japan called for a 10:10:7 ratio in warships. The United States and Britain refused, forcing Japan to settle for a 10:10:6 ratio. Since many militarists and these “ultranationalists” already feared that Japan was facing persecution from the West and had no choice but to seek expansion, and according to Wray, they vouched for territorial expansion and called for more funding to the army.* Naturally, a blow to their demand for a favorable warship ratio had Japan becoming “restless” and “politically fragile.”*
The loss of the Sino-Japanese War did not help their confidence, as it caused many Japanese citizens to not only question the strength of the leadership, but also to believe that a shift to a stronger government focused on nationalism was necessary. Although this war went beyond the 1930s, author, Akira Iriye notes that Japan still had strong ties to domestic reconstruction and were concerned with stability and national unity in as late as 1939. *
In the period from 1931-1945, visions of empire building grew more in Japan’s mind, and one major example of how they could carry that out was through Manchuria. Japan’s goals of military conquest, economic development, and emigration were ripe in Manchuria (later renamed Manchukuo).* The Manchuria effort was part of a greater initiative for the Japanese military to build a colonial society that would be included into the Japanese economy. Efforts in society were put up to encourage the military, economic, and social expansion in Manchuria, which further drove the mobilization for an empire.
Japanese poster showing the prosperity and unity that was promoted in Manchukuo in order to help emigration to the region. The caption reads, "With the help of Japan, China, and Manchukuo, the world can be in peace."*
One issue that began to take shape, however, was between the army and the bureaucracy and business elites. The army was aggressive and demanded political authority in Northeast China, and they ultimately infiltrated Manchuria in a way that did not follow government orders. This group broke off and formed the Kwantung Army. The mass media in Japan, which Young believes was a major contributor to the leadup to the Pacific War, ended up supporting the army’s occupation of Manchuria and fed the masses with pro army propaganda.* The media connected Japan to Manchuria through the slogan “Mamore Manmo Seineisen!” which translates to “Defend the Manchurian-Mongolian Lifeline!"* This excited many Japanese people, because Manchuria was being built up as a land of plenty and a legitimate economic benefit especially during a time when depression and resource shortages plagued Japan. By the mid 1930s, these narratives created by the media led to Manchukuo not only being seen as an extension of Japan or as a “safety net” for the economy, but also a place of sustained growth and booming economic prosperity.* Japan was able to enact an emigration policy as well, sending farmers and other laborers alike over to Manchukuo, which would inevitably turn it into a Japanese colony.* The significance here is that Japan was becoming more successful in drawing its people into imperialism across the sea.
Nevertheless, there were power struggles between the Kwantung Army in Manchukuo and business elites. Businessmen believed that the growing industries in Manchukuo should not interfere with the domestic ones already successful in Japan. To many of the businessmen’s disapproval, the army created the Economic Construction Program, and Young summarizes that this essentially limited different industries to monopolies by the elite class.* This reflected the powerful influence the army had over the government and influential businessmen, as well as a developing superiority complex and strong entitlement toward China.
American narrated clip giving updates on the Sino-Japanese War and Japan's future outlook toward Manchuria. Notice how the end of the coverage highlights China's continued fight to retaliate against Japan.*
Opening page of the American newspaper for Pacific affairs, the "Far Eastern Survey." The importance of this article's central focus is that by now, Americans were starting to gain knowledge an opinions about Japan's dealings in Manchuria. Also reflects how many saw their situation in Manchuria as a "lifeline."*Footnotes:
1. Wray, Harry. "Japanese-American Relations and Perceptions, 1900-1940." Pearl Harbor Reexamined: Prologue to the Pacific War, edited by Hilary Conroy and Harry Wray, Honolulu, U of Hawaii P, 1990, 7.
2. Ibid, 2.
3. Ibid, 3.
4. Army Minister Bulletin. 26 Feb. 1936. The 2.26 Incident of 1936, Modern Japan in Archives.
5. Ibid, 6-7.
6. Ibid, 3.
7. Ibid, 9-10.
8. Iriye, Akira. "U.S. Policy toward Japan before World War 2." Pearl Harbor Reexamined: Prologue to the Pacific War, edited by Hilary Conroy and Harry Wray, Honolulu, U of Hawaii P, 1990, 21.
9. Young, Louise. "Imagined Empire: The Cultural Construction of Manchukuo." Duus, Peter et al. The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945. Princeton, N.J, Princeton University Press, 1996, 71.
10. Ibid, 74.
11. Poster of Manchukuo Promoting Harmony between Japanese, Chinese, and Manchu. 1935. Wikipedia, Wikimedia, 12 July 2006, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Propaganda_in_Japan_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_World_War_II. Accessed 16 Nov. 2020.
12. Ibid, 75.
13. Ibid, 88.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid, 82.
16. The Events of 1945 in Summary for US Newsreel. 1940s. Huntley Film Archives.
17. Stewart, John R. "Manchuria as Japan's Economic Lifeline." Far Eastern Survey [New York City], 20 Nov. 1935, pp. 182-86. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3022242?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents.